Authors: Esposito, E, C., Ellerkamp, H., Eisenberg, A, M., Handley, E, D & Glenn, C, R.
Date of publication: 2024
Journal: Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology

Summary: This study looked at the effect that parent response to their transgender and gender diverse adolescent children had on rates of suicidal ideation. Fifteen adolescent participants were recruited and were regularly followed up over a 14-day period. The researchers found that participants who experienced perceived invalidation and non-affirmation from a parent experienced higher rates of suicidal ideation.

As participants required parental consent to take part in this study, the authors note that this may mean they were already relatively supportive of their TGD children, so further research is required to develop targeted interventions for this vulnerable group.

You can read a summary only of the study here

Authors: Campbell, T., Mann, S., Vand Der Meulen Rogers, V. & Tran, N, M.
Date of publication: 2024
Journal: JAMA Pediatrics

Summary: This study looked at the results of the 2015 US Transgender Survey which surveyed 18,303 transgender adults, to explore the impact of gender identity milestones (e.g. first feeling that one’s gender was different, thinking of oneself as transgender, first telling someone that you are transgender and living full time in one’s gender identity) on mental health. It also looked at the effect level of family support had on this impact.

The study found that during gender milestones, young people who had families who were adverse or neutral to their gender identity were at an increased risk of suicide or running away from home, whilst young people with supportive families did not experience any increase in risk. This highlights that social and community supports to develop supportive relationships between transgender youth and their families is essential.

You can read a summary only of the study here

Authors: Taber, J, L & Stults, C, B.
Date of publication: 2024
Journal: Transgender Health

Summary: This American study surveyed 200 transgender and nonbinary (TNB) young people to explore the impact of supportive and unsupportive family behaviour on the rate of negative mental health outcomes.

The researchers found that unsupportive family behaviours (e.g. violence, kicked out of the family home, ending the relationship) were associated with increased negative mental health outcomes such as depression, anxiety and post -traumatic stress disorder. They also found that supportive family behaviours (e.g. Used preferred name/pronouns, did research on how to support you, stood up for you with others, voiced support to you) were not enough to buffer these negative effects, and if family are only partially supportive it may not be enough to undo the negative impact of other unsupportive family behaviours.

In addition to this, overall supportive family behaviours were not found to be enough to counteract the negative impact of transphobia and other unsupportive behaviours from non-family members.

Understanding the role of family in the mental health of TNB young people is important to aid in developing targeted family interventions.

You can read a summary only of the study here

Authors: McGregor, K., Rana, V., McKenna, J, L., Williams, C, R., Vu & Boskey, E, R.
Date of publication: 2024
Journal: Journal Of Adolescent Health

Summary: This US study explored what impact a family’s positive or negative support towards a transgender young person had on their mental health. 175 transgender young people aged 13-18 years old were assessed via interviews and self-report questionnaires.

The researchers found that when young people experienced positive family support such as using affirmed name and pronouns, advocating for safety and inclusion, facilitating access to gender-affirming care, open communication and supporting gender expression they experienced lower levels of suicidal ideation, suicidality, depression and substance use. Conversely, when youth experienced negative support such as exclusion and abuse, trying to change the young persons gender and believing that gender expression is morally wrong, they not only experienced worse mental health outcomes, but also reduced self-acceptance and increased internalized transphobia.

Families have a crucial contribution to make in the psychosocial wellbeing of transgender young people and healthcare providers must support families in order to facilitate the mental wellbeing of TGD youth.

You can read a summary only of the study here

Authors: Gonzáles-Gonzáles, F., Strizzi, J, M & Fernández-Agin, I.
Date of publication: 2024
Journal: LGBTQ+ Family: An Interdisciplinary Journal

Summary: This Colombian study sought to understand the unique experiences of Latin American parents of transgender and gender-diverse (TGD) youth in order to learn what factors facilitate acceptance and support of their children.

14 parents were recruited from a support group for parents of TGD children and interviewed about their beliefs and behaviours relating to their TGD child with four phases identified: 1) Initial recognition of the child’s TGD status 2) Mobilization 3) Acceptance and coping, and 4) Looking ahead.

The findings show that the path to acceptance is not always straight forward and can involve many (at times contradictory) emotions including confusion, doubt and guilt. Parents identified that access to information and resources, as well as social support such as joining communities is crucial in supporting positive outcomes for themselves and their children.

You can read a summary only of the study here

Authors: Taliaferro L.A., McMorris B.J., Rider G.N., Eisenberg M.E.
Date of publication: 2019
Journal: Archives of Suicide Research: Official Journal of the International Academy for Suicide Research

Summary: This US study used information from 1,635 gender diverse students (Grades 9 and 11). It sought to understand the factors that impact upon non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) (i.e. self-harming acts) and suicide attempts (SA) by gender diverse young people. Students were divided into 3 groups (no self-harm, non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) only, and NSSI and suicide attempt (NSSI + SA)). The researchers ran analyses that tested the associations between risk factors, protective factors, and health-risk behaviours to self-harm. Over half (51.6%) of gender diverse young people in the study reported past-year self-harm behaviour.

Factors that consistently distinguished young people who reported self-harm from those who reported no self-harm included reports of a mental health problem, depression, running away from home, and substance use. Factors that distinguished the NSSI + SA group from the NSSI only group were reports of a mental health problem, physical or sexual abuse, relationship violence, bullying victimization, less parent connectedness (i.e. how much a child feels they can talk to their parent/s about their problems, how much a child feels their parent/s care about them), lower grades, lower levels of perceived school safety, and running away from home. The two strongest factors protecting against the likelihood that gender diverse young people would engage in NSSI and also attempt suicide were parent connectedness and school safety. This study showed that being connected to parents reduced the risk of a suicide attempt in gender diverse young people.

You can read the full study here

Authors: Klein, A. & Golub, S.A.
Date of publication: 2016
Journal: LGBT Health

Summary: This US study looked at associations between family rejection and risk of suicide attempts and substance (alcohol and drug) misuse among a large national sample of 3458 transgender and gender nonconforming adults. The researchers ran analyses that looked at these health risks by the level of reported family rejection (low/moderate/high). Overall, 42.3% of participants reported a suicide attempt and 26.3% reported misusing drugs or alcohol to cope with transgender-related discrimination. After controlling for other significant factors such as age, income, education etc, family rejection was associated with increased chance of suicide attempts and substance misuse. Chances increased significantly with increasing levels of family rejection, such that the risk of attempting suicide more than tripled for those adults who experienced a high level of family rejection. The risk for alcohol or drug abuse also rose much higher.

You can read a summary of the study only here

Authors: Olson, K. R., Durwood, L., DeMeules, M., & McLaughlin, K. A.
Date of publication: 2016
Journal: Pediatrics

Summary: This US study examined the mental health (depression and anxiety levels) of 73 gender diverse children aged 3 to 12 years who had socially transitioned (i.e. were supported to live openly as the gender they identified with). The researchers compared their mental health with two other groups: Non-gender diverse children aged 3 to 12 years and the siblings of the gender diverse study participants. Their parents completed measures of anxiety and depression for all children.

The researchers found that the gender diverse children showed no difference in levels of depression and only slightly higher levels of anxiety than that of average children in the population. When they compared the gender diverse children’s mental health to that of the other groups in the study, they found again that there was no difference in depression levels and only marginally higher anxiety levels. The researchers concluded that when gender diverse children are supported to live openly, they have similar mental health outcomes to their cisgender (i.e., not gender diverse) peers.

You can read the full study here

Authors: Puckett, J. A., Matsuno, E., Dyar, C., Mustanski, B., & Newcomb, M. E.
Date of publication: 2019
Journal: Journal of Family Psychology

Summary: This US study looked at different types of social support and how they influence individuals’ mental health and resilience. The study sample included 695 trans adults and the researchers looked at family support, support from friends, and connectedness to a trans community. Over half of participants reported moderate to severe levels of anxious and depressive symptoms. The researchers found that participants fell into four groups, with one group reporting lower levels of depression and anxiety and higher resilience compared to the other three groups. This group also reported high levels of family support and community connectedness. Overall family support was most strongly linked to better mental health and resilience compared to support from friends or connectedness to the trans community.

You can read the full study here

Authors: Simons, L., Schrager, S. M., Clark, L. F., Belzer, M., & Olson, J
Date of publication: 2013
Journal: Journal of Adolescent Health

Summary: This US study used a survey to investigate the relationships among parental support, quality of life, and depression in trans teenagers using a sample of 66 young people who were accessing gender-affirming healthcare. Parental support was defined as parental help, advice, and confidante support. The researchers found that parental support was significantly associated with higher life satisfaction, lower perceived burden of being trans, and fewer depressive symptoms.

You can read the study summary only here

Authors: Travers, R., Bauer, G. & Pyne, J.
Date of publication: 2012
Report: TransPULSE

Summary: This Canadian study used a survey to report on the health impacts of parental support for 433 trans young people aged 16 to 24 years. The researchers found clear associations between the support that trans young people experience from their parents and numerous health outcomes. The most significant differences indicated that trans young people who have strong parental support for their gender identity and expression report higher life satisfaction, higher self-esteem, better mental health including less depression and fewer suicide attempts, and adequate housing compared to those without strong parental support.

Of note, the researchers found that 57% of participants who reported experiencing parental rejection had attempted suicide in comparison to 4% who reported experiences of parental acceptance. These findings draw a direct relationship between strong parental support and the reduction of significant risk factors for trans young people.

You can read the full study here

Authors: Andrzejewski, J., Pampati, S., Steiner, R. J., Boyce, L., & Johns, M. M.
Date of publication: 2021
Journal: Health Education & Behavior

Summary: In this US study 33 trans young people aged 16 to 25 years were interviewed about their experiences of parental support. The researchers found participants identified numerous ways (emotional, instrumental, informational, and appraisal) in which parents demonstrated their support generally (e.g., expressions of love, housing, advice, and affirmation). Parental support that related directly to their young person’s gender identity was more limited however (e.g., use of chosen name and pronoun). Young people spoke about the importance of having parents provide support specific to their gender identity such as emotional support at the time of their coming out, willingness to listen to the young person’s experience of gender, use of chosen names and pronouns, and support for social, legal and/or medical gender affirmation.

You can read the full study here

Authors: Morgan, H., Raab, D., Lin, A., Strauss, P., & Perry, Y.
Date of publication: 2023
Journal: LGBTQ+ Family: An Interdisciplinary Journal

Summary: This Australian study aimed to better understand how gender diverse young people view parental reactions to disclosure of their gender identity and what they consider to be barriers to, and enablers of, parental support. The researchers interviewed 14 young people aged 14 to 23 years who described a range of initial parental reactions ranging from rejection to unconditional support. They reported parents demonstrated many different feelings and emotions including shock, grief, anxiety and uncertainty, denial and ambivalence. They reported that their fathers or father figures tended to struggle more with understanding and supporting their gender identity. When young people experienced unsupportive reactions they described strong, negative impacts on their mental health and sense of being comfortable or safe at home. Positively, most participants said that their parents became more supportive over time in these cases. Positive reactions from parents related to expressions of unconditional love, efforts to support their child’s gender identity, and concern related to just wanting their child to be happy. Young people identified several barriers to their parents understanding and showing support which included a lack of knowledge of gender diversity and parents feeling a sense of stigma at being the parent of a gender diverse child, feeling isolated or being afraid for their child and their future. Non-binary young people felt that their parents experienced even more difficulty due to a greater lack of information and resources for parents of non-binary children.

Enablers for increasing parental understanding and support related to quick and easy access to good-quality information, being able to connect with peers such as other parents of gender diverse children, and exposure to positive representation of gender diversity such as stories of gender diverse adults. Young people also identified that when parents learned about the impact of not supporting their child’s gender identity, particularly the negative mental health impacts, they were better able to support their child.

You can read a summary of the study only here

Authors: Watson, R. J., Veale, J. F., & Saewyc, E. M.
Date of publication: 2017
Journal: The International Journal of Eating Disorders

Summary: This Canadian study looked at the relationship between disordered eating and risk and protective factors for trans young people using health survey information from 923 participants aged 14-25 years. The researchers found high rates of eating disorders in this group. Nearly half of the 14-18 year olds and more than a third of the 19-25 year olds engaged in behaviours such as binge eating, fasting and using pills, laxatives or vomiting to lose weight. Binge eating and fasting were the most common behaviours, with both behaviours reported by around 35-45% of the participants. Vomiting was reported by almost 1 in 5 of the 14-18 year olds. When compared with figures from a similar study looking at eating disorders in the general youth population, the researchers found that 27% of young people reported binge eating (compared with 42% in this study by Watson and colleagues) and 5% reported vomiting to lose weight (compared with 18% in this study by Watson and colleagues).

The researchers found that enacted stigma (the higher rates of harassment and discrimination that trans young people face) was linked to a higher chance of reported past year binge eating and fasting or vomiting to lose weight. Importantly, they found several factors protected against disordered eating including family connectedness, school connectedness, caring friends, and social support. When participants reported having these factors in their life, they also reported lower chances of past year disordered eating. For 14-18 year olds, family connectedness was particularly linked with the lowest chance of disordered eating.

You can read the full study here

Authors: Belmont, N., Cronin, T.J., & Pepping, C.A.
Date of publication: 2023
Journal: International Journal of Transgender Health


Summary: This Australian study surveyed 63 parents of gender diverse young people (aged 11 to 17 years) to (1) investigate parental reports of affirmation of their children, with a focus on parental support and barriers to affirmation, and (2) test whether parental support and aspects of the co-parenting relationship predicted young people's mental health outcomes.

The researchers found almost 90% of young people had had their gender socially affirmed according to parents' reports, though fewer had taken steps to legally or medically affirm their gender.

Parental support for affirmation was generally very high, and parents reported that co-parenting conflict was generally low although discrepancies between parents were greatest for medical affirmation.

Parent support for affirmation was a strong predictor of lower child depressive symptoms and they found that parental conflict did not have a significant link to children's mental health outcomes.

The researchers concluded that parental support for gender affirmation is important.

You can read the full study here